Phonological Interference of Japanese in the Pronunciation of English Phoneme /v/, /θ/, and /ð/

*This article was presented in StuCELL, UGM on October 4 2023

Jihan Nurhanifah, Anisah Durrotul Fajri*

UIN Sunan Kalijaga, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: anisah.fajri@uin-suka.ac.id

Abstract

Globalization has brought a need for bilingualism. Nowadays, people are urged to study either second or foreign language in order to communicate with people from other regions or countries. The contact of first language with the second or foreign language may result in the language interference, either in grammar or phonology. Phonological interference of the first language to the second or foreign language of the speakers may cause problem in the perception of speech and eventually becomes problem in communication. Literature reviews on the comparison of Japanese phonological system and English has resulted in the inventory of problems in the following phonemes, namely /v/, /θ/, and /ð/. Thus, conducting deeper analysis on the phonological interference of Japanese in the pronunciation of phoneme /v/, /θ/, and /ð/ will help identifying the cause of the problem of difficulty in pronouncing the aforementioned phonemes. This study aims in comparing Japanese phonological system with English phonological system which cause problem in the pronunciation of phoneme /v/, /θ/, and /ð/. By analyzing videos of the IELTS speaking mock test conducted by Japanese native speakers with a score range between 4.0 to 6.5, common errors and difficulties can be identified. Among the common errors is sound substitution where original sound in a word is replaced with another sound. This tendency in sound substitution has been mainly resulted by the differences in phonological system of Japanese and English. The differences include the inexistence several English phonemes in Japanese phoneme system.

Keywords: First language interference, phonological interference, English pronunciation.

Introduction

In this globalization era, English has been used as a lingua franca, a position which plays an important role in connecting communication among people with different languages in a wide range of settings and purposes (Björkman, 2013). In academic setting, English has become the world's most widely taught language, and in most countries, English seems to be the primary foreign language used in schools (Crystal, 2003). In defining the language used in certain country, Kachru and Nelson proposed different name for first, second and foreign language (Kachru & Nelson, 2006). Foreign language can be defined as the language which the speakers do not have direct contact with because it is used by foreign society outside the society of the speakers (Patel & Jain, 2008). While English as second language has been used to define countries whose national or official language is English as a result of civilization which includes India, Nigeria, Singapore, the Philippines, and others (Kachru & Nelson, 2006). With this distinction of terms, English acquisition and learning in those countries where English is used as second and foreign language will be different, with the first can be described as having less problems to the latter. This has been caused by the different contact of the two distinctive group of countries get with English language. Demanding challenges in countries that use English as a foreign language will be faced since they do not have a particular environment that supports their familiarity with English (Widagdo, 2021). However, teaching English as a foreign language in a country where English is not spoken nationally is considered more profitable because although it is not as practical as teaching it in a situation of English as a second language, such as in the United States, teachers will better understand all the differences between English and their students' native language as experienced by English teachers in Japan, especially in phonological scope (Ohata, 2004).

In Japan, English is taught in schools for six years or more, but students still cannot reach the target of mastering English well. The difficulty of achieving this target occurs due to various factors. First, because of the lack of preparation, support, and qualifications teachers have when teaching, especially at the elementary school level (Tatsuki, 2015). The second factor involves the different writing system of Japanese and English. While English uses Latin letters, Japanese uses three kinds of characters, namely Kanji, Katakana, and Hiragana. Finally, the third is the differences in the phonemic system (Suski, 2010).

Japan has fewer phonemes than English, which makes it difficult for Japanese people to make certain sounds in English that are not in the Japanese phonemic system (Suski, 2010). The Japanese vowel system only consists of /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/, while English has more than that. Long vowels and diphthongs in Japanese are not considered to be mono-syllabic phonemes as in English, but the succession of phonemes that correspond to two syllables. Vowels in English require a more comprehensive range of motion, and the rhythm of speech, such as pitch, volume, and length, requires more excellent contrast. In contrast, the Japanese may not be equipped with sufficient muscles of their articulation organs to produce sounds in English correctly and accurately (Noguchi, 2014).

These differences are some of the factors that make Japanese people face difficulties in speaking or learning English, which often causes phonological interference in their English speech production. Interference is an automatic transfer due to an overlap in habits between the first and target languages (Dulay et al., 1982). Having conflicting phonological system caused by the differences, in their speech production people second or foreign language production may have cross linguistic influences from their first language. This can also, in psycholinguistic perspective, be a result of mutually differentiating systems in the form of differentiating and non-differentiating features, optional phonemes, obligatory allophones, and the complete absence of sounds in one of the languages (Brière, 1968).

This study aims to know the phonological interference that occurs in the speech production of Japanese speakers taken from the IELTS speaking mock test. Furthermore, this study also intends to find out factors that cause the interference in their English pronunciation, especially in the pronunciation of phoneme /v/, /θ/, and /ð/. By analyzing the different phonemic systems of Japan and English, reason in the difficulty of pronouncing certain phonemes may be elaborated.

LITERATURE REVIEW

One of the previous studies used as a reference in this research is a study conducted by George (2013). In his research, he discovers that the occurrence of deviations made by Japanese speakers towards the phoneme /v/ by changing or substituting it into phonemes /b/ and phonemes /β/ will affect clarity in English conversation. The use of deviated phonemes does not affect it because speakers more often use the phonemes /b/ and /β/ in their native language speakers, so when they want to pronounce English words that contain the phoneme /v/, Japanese speakers usually use the substitution of phoneme /v/ the foreign becomes the phoneme /b/ or /β/ and it is not a problem because it can still be understood. However, replacing the phoneme /v/ can sometimes confuse Japanese speakers. In other words, when Japanese speakers orient themselves towards phonetic substitution as normative in the context that the phonetic substitution is sufficient to complete a conversation between them, all of this, in another sense, causes articulatory incompatibility even though it conforms to Japanese speaker standards. The effect of substitution by native Japanese speakers in conveying the phoneme /v/ into a different phoneme, namely phoneme /b/ or /β/ and the effects that native speakers will face as a result of changing the phoneme /v/ to /b/ or /β/ were also explained.

The second study used as the base for this study is research conducted by Bencke (2018). He states that the most common consonant mispronounces made by native Japanese speakers are found in the consonant phonemes /v/, /θ/ and /ð/, /r/, and /l/. Because the consonant phonemes that are owned by the Japanese language itself are limited, there are several consonant phonemes which, through particular articulations, are difficult for native Japanese speakers to pronounce and for clear and correct pronunciation of these phonemes require consistent training so that native speakers who are initially unfamiliar become more accustomed and gradually will be able to say the phoneme correctly.

The researcher took some basis and foothold from the two studies for conducting this research. Their statement gave the researcher some new ideas and will be discussed more specifically by the researcher. The link between this research and previous studies is that in this study the researcher will analyze the phonemes /v/, /θ/, and /ð. Next, the object used in this study is also different from the previous research, where in this study, the object used was IELTS speaking mock test video of Japanese adult speakers.

Methods

This research was conducted by using a qualitative inquiry design. The case study approach was selected among other qualitative inquiry research designs to analyze the case of phonological interference in a certain population. A case study is a qualitative inquiry research approach that investigates a case with defined limitations (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Defined limitations in this research include the sample that is Japanese who was doing an IELTS speaking mock test. In conducting the case study, the type of case study applied in the research is the instrumental case study which, according to Creswell, is a study concentrating on a certain problem on which the researcher decides a particular case in addressing the problem (Creswell & Poth, 2018). As in this study, the researcher chooses the case of Japanese IELTS test taker in their English speech production.

In deciding on the sample of the research, the researcher decided to use purposive sampling which is a sampling strategy used by a researcher who already has information that the sample will give the researcher access to certain data required in achieving the research purpose (Dattalo & Patrick, 2008). Samples are selected in regards to the similar first mastered. Thus, the participants in this research speak as the first language under the consideration that no bias may occur caused by the differences in the first language.

The data in this study was taken from several videos of IELTS speaking mock test gathered from www.youtube.com. The criteria in selecting the videos include (1) the speakers should be Japanese native speakers, (2) the IELTS band score should be between 4.0 to 6.5. in regards to the criteria, there are seven videos from several different channels collected. Seven participants took the IELTS speaking mock test, and all of them were adults. From the video, several errors in pronunciation can be found and examined, and the most common errors and difficulties experienced by native Japanese speakers were analyzed in this study.

Some steps were taken in conducting the research. The first is watching and listening to several videos of IELTS speaking mock tests. Then, the researcher observes and analyzes the pronunciation of each participant. Note taking was administered at the same time on words that were pronounced differently from the Received Pronunciation (RP) in consideration that this may indicate difficulty in pronunciation as a result of phonological interference of the first language. The words spoken by native Japanese speakers were then transcribed into the phonetic alphabet and compared with the RP phonetic transcription from the www.oxforddictionary.com. This method is used to see the difference in sound between the transcription of the RP pronunciation from Oxford Dictionary and transcription from Japanese speakers’ pronunciation.

In the analysis, the researcher underlined the pronunciation that experienced differences and changes after being spoken by Japanese speakers. Next, observation on the sound pattern to find out the phonological interference of Japanese in certain phonemes was performed.

Results and Discussion

The findings and discussion in this study are not much different from what has been stated by George (2013) and Bencke (2018), where the most pronunciation mistakes made by native Japanese speakers are located on the phonemes /v/, /θ/ and /ð/, /r/ and /l/. The difference that emerges from this study among the studies previously conducted is by explaining the patterns of errors, the phonological interferences that influence the occurrence of pronunciation errors by Japanese speakers.

After researching the object in the form of a video where six Japanese conducted an IELTS speaking mock test with a score range between 4.0 to 6.5, it can be concluded that there are several similarities in the pattern of mistakes made by these participants. Also, after looking at the frequency of errors, the most frequent mistakes are made, namely when pronouncing the phonemes /v/, /θ/, and /ð.

a. The Pattern of Pronunciation in Phoneme /v/

Several patterns can be easily found when researching and analyzing mistakes made by Japanese in pronouncing some words in English. After noting several words that seemed to have mispronunciations, the researchers checked the phonetic transcripts of the words that had been misspelled by looking at the Oxford Dictionary website. The data were divided into its phoneme distribution, whether the phoneme appears at the beginning of the word, in the middle, or at the end of the word pronounced.

Table 1. Phoneme /v/ Pronunciation Error in the Beginning

Word

Native Japanese Pronunciation

RP Transcript

Valentine

/’balentaɪn/

/ˈvæləntaɪn/

Vacuum

/ˈbakjuːm/

/ˈvækjuːm/

Very

/ˈberi/

/ˈveri/

Vintage

/ˈbɪntedʒ/

/ˈvɪntɪdʒ/

Visit

/ˈbɪsɪt/

/ˈvɪzɪt/

Value

/ˈbæljuː/

/ˈvæljuː/

Examination from the data collected in Table 1. shows that there is a tendency in substituting phoneme /v/ at the beginning of a word with phoneme /b/. Sound substitution is a replacement of a sound or phoneme with another different sound in a specific place on form (Crystal, 2008).

The following table shows Japanese variation in pronouncing phoneme /v/ in the middle distribution.

Table 2. Phoneme /v/ Pronunciation Error in the Middle

Word

Native Japanese Pronunciation

RP Transcript

Every

/ˈebəri/

/ˈevri/

Living

/ˈlɪbɪŋ/

/ˈlɪvɪŋ/

Favorite

/ˈfaborɪt/

/ˈfeɪvərɪt/

Activity

/akˈtɪbɪt̮i/

/ækˈtɪvət̮i/

Television

/ˈtelɪbɪʒon/

/ˈtelɪvɪʒn/

Travel

/ˈtræbl/

/ˈtrævl/

Overseas

/ˌoʊbərˈsizə/

/ˌəʊvəˈsiːz/

Environment

/ɪnˈbaɪrənmənt/

/ɪnˈvaɪrənmənt/

Seven

/ˈsebən/

/ˈsevn/

Device

/dɪˈbaɪs/

/dɪˈvaɪs/

Level

/ˈlebəl/

/ˈlevl/

University

/ˌjuːnɪˈbɜːsəti/

/ˌjuːnɪˈvɜːsəti/

Provide

/proˈbaɪd/

/prəˈvaɪd/

The error made by the sample in pronouncing the sound /v/ located in the middle of the sound is similar to the error that occurs at the beginning of the sound. There is only a substitution of the sound /v/ for the sound /b/. However, in certain cases, such as in words /ˈevri/, where after the sound /v/ is a consonant instead of a vowel, the mistake made by native Japanese speakers in pronouncing the word is by adding a schwa sound or /ə/ after the sound. /b/, which is followed by the consonant and turns into /ˈebəri/. The addition or insertion of a new sound that did not exist before by native Japanese speakers is known as epenthesis (Fromkin et al., 2013).

Table 3. Phoneme /v/ Pronunciation Error in the End

Word

Native Japanese Pronunciation

RP Transcript

Have

/habə/

/hæv/

Expensive

/ɪkˈspensɪbə/

/ɪkˈspensɪv/

Love

/lʌbə/

/lʌv/

Serve

/sɜːbə/

/sɜːv/

Believe

/bɪˈliːbə/

/bɪˈliːv/

As explained in the second table, the pattern of errors made by native Japanese speakers is that if a vowel sound does not follow the /v/ sound, the native Japanese adds the /ə/ sound after the /v/ sound. The pattern is also found in the Table 3, where the phoneme /b/, at the end of a word, results in a substitution of the phoneme /v/ followed by the sound /ə/.

Several patterns can be seen in the mistakes made by Japanese in speaking English. The phoneme /v/ in English is substituted for a different phoneme, /b/. Another pattern that can be seen is if the phoneme /v/, which has changed to /b/, is in the middle, then it only changes the phoneme /v/ to /b/, but for some cases, such as the phoneme /v/ which is not followed by a vowel sound, it will add the phoneme /ə/. This also applies if the phoneme /v/ is at the end, in which after the phoneme /b/, a vowel phoneme will be added, namely phoneme /ə/.

b. The Pattern of Pronunciation in Phoneme /θ/ and /ð/

In analyzing the pattern of pronunciation of words that contain the phonemes /θ/ and / ð/, the researcher conducted examination on the distribution of the phonemes, beginning, middle, and ending distribution. In the following, the forms of speech errors made by Japanese speakers have been distinguished as can be seen from the table.

Table 4. Phoneme /θ/ and /ð/ Pronunciation Error in the Beginning

Native Japanese Pronunciation

RP Transcript

Think

  • ɪŋkə/
  • ɪŋk/
  • ɪŋ/
  • ɪŋ/
  • ː/
  • ː/
  • ɪ/
  • ɪ/

Them

Three

  • əriː/
  • ː/

That

The table above shows the mistakes made by native Japanese speakers in pronouncing the phoneme /θ/ and /ð/. The pattern that can be seen from the table is the substitution of phoneme /θ/ into /s/ as in the word /θɪŋk/, which changes to /sɪŋkə/. Substitution also occurs in the phoneme /ð/ which was substituted with phoneme /d/ as in the word /ðeɪ/, which is substituted for /deɪ/. The pattern found in this phoneme is also not much different from the previous phoneme /v/, in case a vowel phoneme is absent after a consonant phoneme, Japanese speakers usually perform epenthesis by adding the vowel sound /ə/, for example in the word /θriː/, which becomes /səriː/.

The following Table 5 is the data collected on phoneme /θ/ and /ð/ in the middle distribution.

Table 5. Phoneme /θ/ and /ð/ Pronunciation Error in the Middle

Native Japanese Pronunciation

RP Transcript

  • ˈsʌmtɪŋ/
  • ˈsʌmθɪŋ/
  • ˈfɑzər/
  • ˈfɑːðər/
  • ˈmʌzər/
  • ˈmʌðər/
  • ˈbrʌzər/
  • ˈbrʌðər/
  • ˈɡrænˌmʌzər/
  • ˈɡrænmʌðər/
  • ˈwɛzər/
  • ˈwɛðə(r)/

Together

  • ˈɡɛzər/
  • əˈɡɛðə(r)/
  • ˈbersdeɪ/

From Table 5, patterns of pronunciation for phoneme /θ/ and /ð/ in the middle distribution are quite varied. There are different phoneme substitution for phoneme /θ/ which includes phoneme /s/ as in the word /ˈbersdeɪ/, or phoneme /t/ as in the word /ˈsʌmtɪŋ/. The pattern of differences in sound substitution can be seen from the phoneme following the phoneme /θ/, in which in the word /ˈsʌmtɪŋ/ the phoneme /t/ (the realization of phoneme /θ/) is followed by a vowel sound, while in the word /ˈbersdeɪ/ phoneme /s/ (the realization of phoneme /θ/) is not followed by a vowel sound. Thus, the substitution of phoneme /θ/ into /t/ or /s/ depends on the sound following it.

In contrast with phoneme /θ/, the phoneme /ð/ pattern found is not complicated because it only consists of one pattern. The Japanese speakers tend to substitute the phoneme /ð/ into phoneme /z/ as in words /ˈwɛzər/ and /təˈɡɛzər/.

The next analysis is performed on the /θ/ and /ð/ at the ending distribution.

Table 6. Phoneme /θ/ and /ð/ pronunciation Error in the End

Native Japanese Pronunciation

RP Transcript

  • ʊz/
  • əʊðz/

With

  • ɪs/
  • ɪθ/
  • ʌns/
  • ʌnθ/

In the ending distribution, phoneme /θ/ and /ð/ tend to experience substitution. The phoneme /θ/ was substituted for the phoneme /s/, and the phoneme /ð/ was substituted for the phoneme /s/ too.

From the table above, it can be seen that several patterns occur as a result of the substitution of the phoneme /θ/ to become the phoneme /s/ regularly, except for the word /ˈsʌmtɪŋ/ where the phoneme /θ/ is not substituted for /s/ but becomes /t/. The phoneme /ð/, in contrast, was substituted with phoneme /z/ such as in the word /kloʊz/.

To sum up the premonition pattern in the pronunciation of phoneme /v/, /θ/, and /ð/ can be classified into two phonological process, the substitution of phoneme and the addition of vowel phoneme or epenthesis.

c. Phonological Interferences influencing the pronunciation of Phoneme /v/, /θ/, and /ð/

Most Japanese people substitute phoneme /v/, /θ/, and /ð/ to other phonemes. This happens, especially if the Japanese is not fluent in speaking English. In this case, the English proficiency may cause higher phonological interferences in the English speech production. This is in line with what stated by Sales that “the greater the knowledge an individual acquires about certain language features, the easier it is to cope with and apply these features in the process of information exchange” (Sales, 2022).

The phonological interferences were also caused by different phonological system, including the phonemic system. Interdental phonemes are not common in Japanese, thus phonemes /θ/ and /ð/ are more difficult to Japanese and they attempt to substitute these phonemes to the most similar one in Japanese phonemic system that is /s/, /z/, /d/. Furthermore, Japanese also does not have a labiodental phoneme, which in English is the place of articulation of the phonemes /v/ and /f/. In this case, Japanese speakers find these sounds complicated, and mistakes are often made. This result supports the idea that problems in the speech production may be caused by various factors including the use of mother tongue influenced by different phoneme system (Adinda et al., 2023).

The phonological interferences that cause the phoneme substitution and addition may be caused by several factors. One of the main factors is the existence of different phoneme systems. Different language may have differences in its phonemic system. Likewise, English and Japanese where Japanese has fewer phonemes than the English system. However, even though Japanese has a few phoneme systems, Japanese has very diverse allophonic variations that differ from English. Therefore, phoneme substitution may commonly occur in English speech production of Japanese.

CONCLUSION

The difference between the mistakes made by Japanese speakers based on their scores lies in the frequency of mistakes, where native Japanese speakers with lower scores have more apparent errors than native Japanese speakers with higher scores.

Besides that, the score obtained by each Japanese speaker is also seen from their ability to answer questions given by the test organizers, so the assessment is not only based on how they pronounce a word in English. Therefore, from the seven samples of native Japanese that the writer took, they all have the same error in pronouncing the phonemes /v/, /θ/, and /ð/.

The phonological process occurs due to the mispronunciation of a word in a foreign language. In this case, a pronunciation error was made by Japanese speakers in pronouncing a word in English. Furthermore, in this study, mistakes are more concerned and specified in the phonemes /v/, /θ/, and /ð/. After analyzing and comparing the pronunciation made by native Japanese speakers with RP phonetic transcription taken from the Oxford Dictionary, there are many pronunciation errors in the phonemes /v/, /θ/, and /ð/. Where among these errors have a pattern that is quite similar.

This pronunciation error occurs due to a phonological interference where the phonemic system of the first language differs greatly to those of the second or foreign language, which is known as sound substitution. The English phonemes are substituted to the closest similar phoneme in Japanese language.

The absence of certain phoneme in Japanese is the main cause of the phonemic substitution. Several phonemes in English phonemic systems do not exist in the Japanese phonemic system. However, the more the speakers know on the differences, in this case the higher the proficiency, the less phonological interferences occur. Meanwhile, thus having lower proficiency which results in the unfamiliarity in certain phoneme.

Limitation of this research lies on the number of participants of the study. The study is limited to only seven IELTS speaking mock test samples. Thus, further research needs to be conducted in a greater number of participants. With this being controlled, a strong claim can be made.

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